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Trends in migration to the U.S.

roccagroup — Sun, 16 Jul 2023 18:32:54 +0000

Immigration is widely considered to be in the national interest since it permits individuals to better themselves as it strengthens the United States.

For its first 100 years, the United States facilitated immigration, welcoming foreigners to settle a vast country. Beginning in the 1880s, an era of qualitative immigration restrictions began as certain types of immigrants were barred: prostitutes, workers with contracts that tied them to a particular employer for several years, and Chinese. In the 1920s, quantitative restrictions or quotas set a ceiling on the number of immigrants accepted each year.

During the 1970s, the origins of most immigrants changed from Europe to Latin America and Asia: Between 2000 and 2009 over three-fourths of the 10 million immigrants admitted were from Latin America and Asia.

U.S. immigration has occurred in waves, with peaks followed by troughs (see figure). The first wave of immigrants, mostly English speakers from the British Isles, arrived before records were kept beginning in 1820. The second wave, dominated by Irish and German Catholics in the 1840s and 1850s, challenged the dominance of the Protestant church and led to a backlash against Catholics, defused only when the Civil War practically stopped immigration in the 1860s.

The third wave, between 1880 and 1914, brought over 20 million European immigrants to the United States, an average of 650,000 a year at a time when the United States had 75 million residents. Most southern and eastern European immigrants arriving via New York’s Ellis Island found factory jobs in Northeastern and Midwestern cities. Third-wave European immigration was slowed first by World War I and then by numerical quotas in the 1920s.

Between the 1920s and 1960s, immigration paused. Immigration was low during the Depression of the 1930s, and in some years more people left the United States than arrived. Immigration rose after World War II ended, as veterans returned with European spouses and Europeans migrated. The fourth wave began after 1965, and has been marked by rising numbers of immigrants from Latin America and Asia. The United States admitted an average 250,000 immigrants a year in the 1950s, 330,000 in the 1960s, 450,000 in the 1970s, 735,000 in the 1980s, and over 1 million a year since the 1990s.

The House approved an enforcement-first bill in 2005 and has opted for a piecemeal approach to immigration reform in 2013, with bills that increase border and interior enforcement and expand guest worker programs for farm and information technology (IT) workers.

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Australia’s immigration history

roccagroup — Sun, 16 Jul 2023 12:52:00 +0000

Since the First Fleet dropped anchor in 1788, close to 10 million settlers have moved from across the world to start a new life in Australia.

They have arrived in waves, encouraged by developments like the 1850s gold rushes, or to escape adverse conditions at home such as the Industrial Revolution’s social upheavals in 19th-century Britain, the two world wars, and the aftermath of the Vietnam War in the 1970s. Collectively these migrants have helped shape a unique British-based and now multicultural society on the perimeter of Asia.

Convict transportation

From 1788 to 1868 Britain transported more than 160,000 convicts from its overcrowded prisons to the Australian colonies, forming the basis of the first migration from Europe to Australia. When these first Europeans arrived they did not find an empty land as expected. They were outnumbered by more than 500,000 indigenous Aboriginal people whose ancestors had lived in Australia for at least 50,000 years.

Free immigrants

Between 1793 and 1850 nearly 200,000 free settlers and assisted immigrants chose to migrate to Australia to start a new life. The majority were English agricultural workers or domestic servants who outnumbered the Irish and Scottish migrants.

Labourers

Did you know the Chinese were the third largest migrant group in Australia after the British and Germans by 1901?

Thousands of Chinese people came to Australia during the 1850s gold rushes. When the gold was exhausted many took up market gardening or established businesses such as restaurants or laundries. In the second half of the 19th century, South Sea Islanders were recruited to work on Queensland sugar plantations, Afghan cameleers played a vital role in the exploration and opening up of the Australian outback, and Japanese divers contributed to the development of the pearling industry.

White Australia

Did you know migrants had to pass a dictation test in any European language in order to enter Australia between 1901 and 1958?

Following Federation in 1901 Australia’s newly-formed Federal Parliament passed the Immigration Restriction Act, which placed certain restrictions on immigration and aimed to stop Chinese and South Sea Islanders from coming to Australia. These laws, known as the White Australia policy, were administered by a dictation test and informed Australian attitudes to immigration for the next 50 years.

Populate or perish

In the years after World War 2, Australia stepped up its immigration with the catchphrase “Populate or perish” It negotiated agreements to accept more than two million migrants and displaced people from Europe, offered assisted £10 passages to one million British migrants, nicknamed “Ten Pound Poms”, and finally, in the 1970s, repealed the restrictive White Australia policy framed in 1901.

Boat people

In the late 1970s, just as the last migrants to travel by ocean liner arrived in Australia, a new wave of seaborne refugees docked in Darwin, firstly from East Timor and then from Indochina. The Vietnamese “boat people” in particular arrived at a time of dramatic social upheaval in Australia, with spirited public debate about our involvement in the Vietnam War, the new concept of multiculturalism, the breaking of many of Australia’s traditional ties with Britain, and the forging of new links with Asia. Despite some opposition from the wider community, the relaxation of immigration restrictions meant that most of the refugees were allowed to settle in Australia. They were followed by a second wave of boat people from Cambodia, Vietnam, and southern China in the late 1980s and 1990s.

Asylum seekers

Since the late 1990s increasing numbers of asylum seekers fleeing conflict in the Middle East and Sri Lanka have arrived in Australia by boat. They are distinct from the previous two waves of boat people in that they usually involve larger numbers of arrivals and their passage is often organised by people smugglers. Today the question of how to deal with asylum seekers arriving on unauthorized voyages remains one of the most polarising debates in contemporary Australia.

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Time to rescue old money from sleeping bank accounts

roccagroup — Fri, 21 May 2021 14:39:00 +0000

Moving to another country, a death, the closing of a company – there are any number of situations in which a person can forget to update the bank of important information relating to changes to an account.

Losing contact with a customer is something that can happen at any bank anywhere in the world. There are clear rules dictating what measures a bank should take in such cases, but also what customers and their heirs can do to find their assets.

Wake up before your cash vanishes. An account is deemed to be dormant if has seen no activity in the past 60 years. In other words, the provider has lost contact with the account holder and no money has been paid in or taken out. You might think there would be relatively few accounts that were deemed dormant but you’d be wrong.

Of the 150 million bank accounts and building society accounts, up to half a million may be dormant.

Accounts opened by relatives for children, unbeknownst to those children, are common. Sums also lie untouched when people die and the executor doesn’t realise the account exists. In many cases, busy people simply forget about accounts.

Typically, a dormant account is just the remnants of savings, but it is not unusual for there to be several hundred thousand in an account.

A search can be carried out at any time once assets have become without contact – it is not necessary that the 60 years have passed. Because the assets that are contained in this centralized database are subject to bank – client confidentiality, an inquiry may only with proof of entitlement.

Despite the best of efforts to find customers and the possibility for individual searches through the Banking Ombudsman, it can nevertheless occur that contact cannot be re-established for decades. Losing contact with a customer is something that can happen at any bank anywhere in the world. There are clear rules dictating what measures a bank should take in such cases, but also what customers and their heirs can do to find their assets.

In order to give customers a final possibility to search for assets and thus ensure that banks can address dormant assets in a standardised manner and with legal certainty, there is a special procedure in place:

Assets that were without contact for 10 years and then remained dormant for a further 50 years (i.e. 60 years since last contact with the customer), must be published on the internet if they are valued at over CHF 500 or have an unknown value, in order to give any parties that are potentially entitled to the assets the opportunity to establish contact. Bank-client confidentiality is rescinded for these assets in order to increase the possibility that the entitled parties can find their assets following publication.
here available, the last name, first name, date of birth and nationality of the customer (in exceptional cases the account or savings book number) will be published, as well as the last known place of residence or domicile. This applies to all types of assets, including safe-deposit boxes.
Processing of the claim by the bank can result in the re-establishment of customer contact. In this case, the assets are no longer deemed dormant, and the authorised person may dispose freely of such.
If there is no response to publication on the website after the specified publication period has elapsed, the assets must be transferred to the federal government by law. The rights of the customers then become null and void.
According to the new guidelines, the banks must publish these assets on the website at least once annually.

His publication requirement applies to all relationships that exceed an asset value of CHF 500 or whose value is unknown (for example in the case of safe-deposit boxes).

If no contact is made by a legitimate claimant regarding publication within the specified period, the banks must transfer the assets to the Federal government. The duration of the period is one year. For older assets that have already been dormant for more than 50 years when the new regulation came into force, the period is five years.

Assets of up to a maximum value of CHF 500 will be transferred to the federal government after 60 years without such publication.

Once the assets have been transferred to the federal government, all claims relating to the assets are null and void.

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Two centuries of Australia immigration

roccagroup — Thu, 21 May 2020 15:04:30 +0000

For more than two centuries, extensive immigration has underpinned economic and social development in Australia. The immigrant share of Australia’s population is high, at 28 percent, and the foreign-born population has grown more diverse over time as the country amended immigration policies that once favored newcomers from European countries. In addition, Australia ranks third among refugee resettlement countries, after the United States and Canada, having resettled more than 840,000 people since 1947.

Since European settlement began in the late 18th century, overwhelming the indigenous population, immigration has played a major role in Australia’s population growth—in many periods comprising more than half of the annual increase. Between the end of World War II and 2016, the Australian population more than tripled, from 7.4 million to 24.2 million.

In the second half of the 19th century, concerns grew about competition on the goldfields and other potential threats to the domestic workforce posed by low-wage migrant labor from Asia and the Pacific Islands.

Figure 1: Top Origin Countries of Permanent Resident Arrivals in Australia

Changes in the major source countries reflect this shift to nondiscriminatory selection, as well as the impact of economic, social, and political circumstances in individual countries. In 1972-73, around the formal end of the White Australia Policy, 43 percent of all permanent arrivals were from the United Kingdom and Ireland, while India ranked eighth with 2 percent (see Figure 1). By 2016-17, Indians had taken the lead, constituting 17 percent of the 226,000 permanent arrivals, followed by Chinese 13 percent and British 8 percent. Other non-European countries also grew in prominence, including the Philippines, Syria, and Vietnam.

In 2016, among all foreign born, those from the United Kingdom and New Zealand were the two largest groups, accounting for roughly 21 percent of Australia’s nearly 7.7 million immigrants. The next four top countries of origin—China, India, the Philippines, and Vietnam—were all in Asia.

Australia follows the Canadian practice of using a points system to weigh and adjudicate applications for admission as an economic immigrant, with criteria reflecting changing emphases on age, family ties, language, education, work experience, and occupation. Since the introduction of the Numerical Multifactor Assessment Scheme (NUMAS) in 1979, the system has favored younger, skilled migrants with knowledge of English—the type of workers required as Australia restructured its economy to better cope with the challenges of globalization, by moving toward knowledge-based industries and away from manual labor. Since the 1980s, special entry schemes have admitted investors and businesspeople, most recently emphasizing innovation and investment.

While Australian immigration policy favored European immigrants until the latter part of the 20th century, the shift in more recent decades toward diversified admissions has helped Australia become the multicultural and economically competitive nation it is today.

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Where do New Yorkers come from?

roccagroup — Thu, 21 May 2020 15:03:23 +0000

Throughout it’s nearly 400-year history, New York City’s demography has been characterized by an ever-changing series of immigration waves, coming from all corners of the globe.

The graphic shows how these waves of immigration have varied over time. The circles represent each group’s share of New York City’s foreign-born population in the given year.

What About the Native Americans?

The Dutch purchase Manhattan Island
A 1626 letter to the Dutch government describing the purchase (translation)
Native Americans are not included in the chart because their population went to zero as soon as the Dutch bought Manhattan Island in 1626. At that time, and until the five boroughs were consolidated in 1898, New York City included Manhattan only.

However, they did continue to inhabit the lands around Manhattan, and had a quite significant impact on the City’s history.

In 1641, an attempt by the Dutch to solicit taxes from the natives led to a violent conflict known as Kieft’s War, which nearly wiped the Dutch out.

The Dutch ultimately beat the natives, but they were left in a weakened position, one which the British took advantage of in 1664 when they captured New Amsterdam and renamed it New York.

The number of the Inhabitants in this Province are about 3000 families* where of almost one halfe are naturally Dutch a great part English and the rest French.
* The total population of the province as it existed in 1698, was 18 067. In 1703 they numbered 20 749 and in 1723 was 40 564.

Prior to 1776, all New York City residents are treated as foreign born.

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South Africa immigration

roccagroup — Thu, 21 May 2020 15:02:20 +0000

European exploration of the African coast began in the 13th century when Portugal committed itself to discover an alternative route to the silk road that would lead to China. In the 14th and 15th century, Portuguese explorers traveled down the west African Coast, detailing and mapping the coastline and in 1488 they rounded the Cape of Good Hope.

The discoveries of diamonds and gold in the nineteenth century had a profound effect on the fortunes of the region, propelling it onto the world stage and introducing a shift away from an exclusively agrarian-based economy towards industrialisation and the development of urban infrastructure.

The first European settlers – Dutch farmers sent to re-provision ships of the Dutch East India Company – arrived at the Cape in 1652. They were joined in 1688 by Huguenots (French Protestant refugees), followed by groups from Belgium, Britain, France and Germany, and augmented by often highly skilled slaves from Indonesia and Malaya.

Temporary Residency – Top 10 Countries: Overseas

In 1805, the British inherited the Cape as a prize during the Napoleonic Wars,again seizing the Cape from the French controlled Kingdom of Holland which had replaced the Batavian Republic.

British sovereignty of the area was recognised at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the Dutch accepting a payment of 6 million pounds for the colony. As one of their first tasks they outlawed the use of the Dutch language in 1806 with the view of converting the European settlers to the British language and culture.

The discovery of gold in February 1886 at a farm called Langlaagte on the Witwatersrand in particular precipitated a gold rush by prospectors and fortune seekers from all over the world.

The working environment of the mines, meanwhile, as one historian has described it, was “dangerous, brutal and onerous”, and therefore unpopular among local black Africans. Recruitment of black labour began to prove difficult, even with an offer of improved wages. In mid-1903 there remained barely half of the 90,000 black labourers who had been employed in the industry in mid-1899. The decision was made to start importing Chinese indentured labourers who were prepared to work for far less wages than local African labourers. The first 1,000 indentured Chinese labourers arrived in June 1904. By January 1907, 53,000 Chinese labourers were working in the gold mines.

South Africa hosts a sizeable refugee and asylum seeker population. According to the World Refugee Survey 2008, published by the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, this population numbered approximately 144,700 in 2007.

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Gold sleeping accounts

roccagroup — Thu, 21 May 2020 15:01:27 +0000

In order to survive twentieth-century financial upheavals such as the stock market crash of 1929 and subsequent depression, achieving legal recognition for bank secrecy was the way the Swiss government could maintain its beliefs and refusal to interfere in the private affairs of its citizens. The Banking Act of 1934 accomplished this goal. The law was enacted in large part because both Germany and France attempted to press Swiss banks into divulging depositor information in the name of the “good of the state”.

One issue of the time that reinforced the passage of this law came during the era of Hitler when a German law stated that any German with foreign capital was to be punished by death.

NAZI GOLD

Many European Jews deposited their life savings in Swiss banks when WWII broke out during the 1930s and 1940s. And, after the war, many were not allowed to recover their assets because their documentation was gone.

Swiss banks have come under fire in recent years because of their actions towards Jewish account holders after World War II and also because money that German Nazis plundered from defeated countries and their prisoners was held in Swiss banks.

According to a report on Nazi theft of Jewish assets, during WWII “between January 1939 and June 30, 1945, Germany transferred gold worth around $400 million ($3.9 billion in today’s values) to the Swiss National Bank in Bern.” It is believed that much of this gold was stolen from Jews and sent to Switzerland to be melted down and used to finance the war.

“Although there is no evidence that Switzerland or other neutral countries knowingly accepted victim gold … at least a small portion of the gold that entered Switzerland and Italy included non-monetary gold from individual citizens in occupied countries and from concentration camp victims or others killed before they even reached the camps.” This gold was deliberately mixed with other gold when re-smelted.

After the war, to ensure that there could be no Nazi return to power, the Allies held or disposed of German external assets to prevent their return to German ownership or control.

The 1946 Allied-Swiss Washington Accord was held by the United States, United Kingdom and France. Under the Washington Agreement, Swiss negotiators agreed to transfer approximately 250 million Swiss francs ($58.1 million) of gold into the Tripartite Gold Commission’s (TGC) monetary gold pool. So the TGC established a proportional redistribution system which established that each country would receive approximately 65 percent of its recognized claim.

he problem of dormant accounts and heirless assets was not directly addressed in the Washington Agreement. Although no action was taken until 1962 a Swiss Federal Decree required banks, law offices, trustees and others to comb through records to discover dormant accounts belonging to foreign or stateless persons who were deemed victims of racist, religious or political persecution. As a result, a total of nearly 9.5 million Swiss francs (an approximate 1962 value of $2.4 million) was reported and about three-fourths was transferred to the rightful heirs.

The current investigation by the Swiss Bankers Association, begun in 1995, is the most recent attempt to find remaining dormant accounts and heirless assets. The investigations turned up approximately $32 million in 775 additional dormant accounts opened prior to 1945, though not all were of European origin.

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World’s immigration

roccagroup — Thu, 21 May 2020 15:00:04 +0000

In Europe the oversas immigration was tied to colonial migration traditions which created overseas expansion in its early stage. Apart from free settlers who paid their own costs of travelling and state employees, church and settlement companies employees, contractual labourers made a significant portion of people who traveled from NorthWest Europe to America in the 16th and 17th century.

From 30s of the 19the century, mass immigration from Europe got a long term status. The immigration became massive one from 1820. Between the years of 1820 and 1860 13.5 million of immigrants came into the USA while a great part of them came from South and Central Europe. At first, they came to America for better wages in steel factories, metal factories and coal mines with no intention to stay permanently. After some time more and more people intended to stay permanently.

In the period from 1900 to 1924 around 18 million of immigrants came in from similar areas. As the labour opportunities with gradual industrialization process went higher, the number of immigrants heading from centres of industrial development of West, Central and East Europe to the USA went lower. Towards the 90s of the 19th century overseas immigration was significantly reduced, except from Great Britain.

In the first decade of the 20th century when the European immigration reached the greatest extent, only third of immigrants came from Great Britain and NorthWest part of continental Europe, where e.g. originally great portion of German immigrant dropped to appr. 2%. Around 2/3 of European immigrants came from South Europe (41%), from East and SouthEast Europe and Eastern part of Central Europe (appr. 25% in total). By the year 1880 statistics of American immigration showed hardly 150,000 immigrants from Habsbrug Monarchy and Tsar’s Russia.

In the 90s of the 19th century there were 593,000 and 602,000. In the first decade of 20th century, when the “new migration“ reached the top, American statistics recorded 2,145,000 immigrants from Austria Hungary and 1,597,000 from Russia, among whom there are 976,000 Jews and 874,000 Poles.

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Search ancestor’s name

roccagroup — Thu, 21 May 2020 14:57:28 +0000

Our last name holds clues into your family history. Whether you have a common or unique last name, learning the meaning behind your name can unlock new details of your genealogy. It’s about your family history and your ancestor’s journey.

A last name meaning search can reveal:

Where your family lived
Your family’s national origin – Ireland, Germany, Italy, and more
When your ancestors immigrated
An ancestor’s occupation or nickname

Early last names were often linked to occupations, geographical features such as where your home was in the village, a nickname, physical feature, or even a combination of the mother’s and father’s names. Eventually, most people adopted patronymic names inherited from their fathers.

Perhaps there are other countries (and relatives) attached to your family tree that you had never considered before.

The genealogy behind your last name is more than just finding the meaning from a surnames list. Tracing your last name origin can help you gleam new insights into your family history and even about yourself. After all, your name is a piece of your identity.

Identifying your ancestors’ names in indexes and records may be difficult because of:

Spelling errors and spelling changes over time
Errors in reading handwriting
Americanization of foreign surnames
Errors made by an indexer
Errors made by the transcriber of a record

In early church records it was up to a priest how the names were spelled and different Priests within the same parish had different ideas on how names should be spelled. When a census taker recorded a person’s name the census taker decided the name was spelled.

For example Reed, Reid, Ried, Read, Reed, and search under each spelling. First names were also spelled in many different ways and nicknames were frequently used such as Sally for Sarah and Patsy for Martha.

These 4 steps will help you identify your ancestor’s name in indexes and records

1. Look for the surname with the first or middle names as initials or abbreviations.

Vowels: Look for the name spelled with different vowels. For example, look for GILLESPIE under GALLESPIE, GELLESPIE, GOLLESPIE, GULLESPIE, or GYLLESPIE.

Double letters: Search the index for the name with double letters added or deleted. For example, for the name FULLER, try FULER. For the name BAKER, try BAKKER.

Transposed letters: Look for the name spelled with each of the first four letters transposed. For example, look for name WIGHTMAN under IWGHTMAN, WGIHTMAN, WIHGTMAN, and WIGTHMAN.

Misread letters: Old handwriting is often a challenge to read. For example, look for CARTER might be under GARTER, EARTER, OARTER, CEARTER, CEIRTER, CAETER, CASTER, and so forth.

Phonetic substitutes: You find ways the name may have been misspelled using letters which sound similar. For example, look for RADCLIFFE might be searched for under RHADCLIFFE, RATCLIFFE, RADDCLIFFE, RADKLIFFE, RADGLIFFE, RADCLIVE, or RADCLIPHE.

2. Apply the suggestions
Using your ancestor’s name, experiment with the suggestions made in the table above. Try possible:

Alternative or phonetic spellings
Handwriting alternatives
Typos and inadvertent spelling errors
Indexing errors

3. Search the original record
If the record is a copy, the transcriber may have misread the original record. To find the original record:

Check the FamilySearch Catalog or MyHeritage to see if the original record has been filmed. If so, obtain the film and photocopy the page in question.
Write to the place where the original record may be housed, such as a courthouse, state archives, or church. Ask for a photocopy of the page you need.
Compare the copy of the record with the original record, watching for the suggestions made in the above.

4. Look for relatives in an index
Look for the names of parents, children, brothers or sisters, and uncles or aunts in the index. If you find relatives in the index, look at the original record to see if the person you want is mentioned in the record but was missed by the indexer.

You may need to be creative when trying to identify how a family names was spelled by a specific census taker.

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Genome study

roccagroup — Thu, 21 May 2020 14:55:50 +0000

Massive genome-wide study in the United States has revealed a ‘historical portrait’ of post-colonial population patterns across the country.

Following the arrival of Columbus and his contemporaries, population expansion in the Americas has proceeded at an exceptionally rapid pace, with factors such as war, slavery, disease and climate shaping human demography.

The first cluster, they say, likely came about from population structures that existed prior to immigration to the US. This included clusters of Finnish, Scandinavian, Jewish, and Irish ancestries – groups who came to the country in large numbers within the last 200 years – as well as African Americans and individuals of Polynesian ancestry.

In addition, the team included Acadians and French Canadians, who they found to have clusters with ‘clear geographic concentrations both within and outside the United States.’

Admixed clusters largely represented Hispanic/Latino populations, including groups from Colombia, Central America, and the Caribbean.

African Americans: This group appeared to originate in the US in the coastal plans of North and South Carolina, pushing west until it hit eastern Texas. According to the team, the pattern coincides with regions that have both high self-reported African ancestry and regions that historically practiced slavery.

European Jewish: This was one of the largest clusters found in the study. This cluster was most strongly represented in New York and Chicago, where large numbers of Jewish immigrants arrived in the late 1800s and early 1900s.

Portuguese: The many Portuguese immigrants began to come to the US in the late 19th century, flocking to the eastern US, the study does not reflect this. But, it does show immigration to a number of cities in California, including the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Area, Santa Cruz, the Central Valley, and San Diego.

Eastern Europeans: Between 1840 and 1870, they found that immigrants mostly came from Hungary, Poland, Austria, Slovakia, Czech Republic, and Italy, heading for New York and Pennsylvania.

Northern Europe: This cluster included Finnish, Swedish, Danish, Norwegians and Scandinavians. These groups came to the country in large numbers within the last 150-200 years.

Irish: According to the researchers, six million Irish came to the US in the 19th century.

Admixed clusters largely represented Hispanic/Latino populations, including groups from Colombia, Central America, and the Caribbean.

The third group, accounted for the majority of the samples, with the five largest clusters described as assimilated immigrant clusters. One of these clusters is the Pennsylvania cluster, accounting for massive amounts of Germans that arrived in the country in the 1700s. About 80,000 Germans immigrated between 1717 and 1775, settling in Philadelphia, southeast Pennsylvania, and New Jersey.

Once the first wave of immigrant families is established, their success encourages others to follow them. So the Irish and the Germans soon become a significant proportion of the American population. The figures are striking. In 1860 approximately 4 million residents in the United States have been born elsewhere – some 1.6 million in Ireland and 1.3 million in Germany (compared to about half a million in England, Scotland and Wales).

When combined with their children born in the States, these figures suggest that the new Irish and German communities are each already about 3 million strong – perhaps as much as 10% of the population (31 million in 1860). And these figures are in addition to older Irish and German groups already present in colonial times.

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